Since Madhav has nicely brought in the literary angle, it may be helpful to pursue his dip into the epic a bit further. Consider the passages in the Mahābhārata’s Virāṭaparvan’s Pāṇḍavapraveśaparvan in which Arjuna first tells Yudhiṣṭhira of the guise/disguise he will adopt while living concealed in the court of the Matsya king. Of interest here is how the Mbh commentators understand the terminology for Arjuna’s gender change. References here are both to the BORI Critical Edition (CE) and the 1915 Gujarati Printing Press edition (GPP) with several commentators Without, for the moment, proposing English translations of the gender terms they are as follows.

 

At CE 4.2.21 Arjuna announces that he will present himself to Virāṭa as a ṣaṇḍhaka. At 4.59*=GPP 4.2.27ab he says that he will represent himself as someone who is tṛtīyāṃ prakṛtiṃ gataḥ, “gone to the third nature.”

 

With regard to the first term, Nīlakaṇṭha, evidently eager to avoid the notion that the great hero could actually be a de-sexed male, or, perhaps more significantly, that he could be preparing to lie, relies on the Viśvakośa to provide a variety of interpretations and says ad GPP 4.2.25, 

 

ṣaṇḍhako ’smīti śaṇḍho gopatiḥ śrīgopalas tasya pratikṛtir avatārāntaraṃ ṣaṇḍhakaḥ kṛṣṇasakho ’smīty arthaḥ. pakṣe klībaḥ. “ṣaṇḍho varṣavare klībe gopatau vandhyapuruṣe” iti viśvaḥ||

 

“I am a ṣaṇḍhaka.” The term ṣaṇḍha means “a lord of cattle,” that is to say, “Śrīgopāla.” His spitting image and second incarnation is [thus] a ṣaṇḍhaka. So, the meaning is that he is [really] saying, “I am Kṛṣṇa’s friend.” The alternative meaning is “a eunuch.” For the Viśvakośa says, “ṣaṇḍha can mean ‘a eunuch,’ ‘a coward,’ ‘a lord of cattle,’ or ‘a sterile man.”

 

With regard to 4.59*=GPP 4.2.27ab Arjunamiśra observes,

 

tṛtīyāṃ prakṛtiṃ napuṃsakamūrtim. urvaśyāḥ śāpam anugṛhṇāti dharmavarāc ca tadā||

 

The “third nature” that is to say, “embodiment as a eunuch or hermaphrodite.” And then he was favored, through [the modification] of Urvaśī’s curse [that Arjuna would become a eunuch permanently] through the boon of Dharma.

 

When Arjuna actually presents himself to Virāṭa and applies for the position of dancing and music master to the ladies of the king’s antaḥpuram,  he is dressed in women’s clothing and ornaments and speaks of himself only in the feminine gender. But neither Vaiśampāyana’s narrative nor Arjuna/Bṛhannaḍā himself/herself uses any specific term to describe his/her gender, referring only to his qualifications for the job. The closest thing to such a reference is when he tells the king at CE 4.10.9=GPP 4.11.9 that it is too painful to explain how he came to have this particular (evidently ambiguously gendered) form but that he was abandoned by his parents as it was unclear whether he was their son or their daughter. 

 

idaṃ tu rūpaṃ mama yena kiṃ nu

            tat prakīrtayitvā bhṛśaśokavardhanam |

bṛhannaḍāṃ vai naradeva vṛddhi mām

            sutaṃ sutāṃ vā pitṛmātṛvarjitām || {

 

How I came to have this form I must not tell as it brings me great sorrow. Lord of men, know me as Bṛhannaḍā abandoned by my father and mother as either a son or a daughter. 

 

The only commentator quoted in the GPP, the author of the Viṣamapadavivaraṇa, remarking on the term rūpamin the verse, glosses it as pratyakṣaṃ napuṃsakatvam, as “the obvious lack of manhood.” The suggestion here, I think, is of a physical manifestation.

 

In this light, under the maxim of “Trust but verify,” how is the king to know, for certain, given Arjuna’s ambiguous appearance as both a manly warrior and an effeminate or intersexed artiste that he will not be introducing a virile man into the womens’ quarters to be in intimate contact with his daughter? The text of the CE makes a brief and somewhat vague attempt to resolve this at 4.10.11c where it says:

 

apuṃstvam apy asya niśamya ca sthiraṃ |

            tataḥ kumārīpuram utsasarja tam ||

 

Then, after having ascertained definitively that he (Bṛhannaḍā) was not a man, he let him freely enter thePrincess’s quarters. 

 

The author of the Viṣamapadavivaraṇa glosses apuṃstvam as pauruśābhāvaṃ napuṃsakatvam, the absence of masculinity, the state of an intersexed person or eunuch. 

 

But the question is how exactly did the king definitively (sthiram) make this determination? The authors of a few Northern manuscripts—no doubt in an effort to clarify this touchy matter—insert a passage of two lines (CE 239*=GPP 4.11.11.cd):

 

saṃmantrya rājā vividhaiḥ svamantribhih |

            parīkṣya cainaṃ pramdābhir āśu vai ||

 

After having consulted with various of his counselors, the king immediately had him examined/tested by beautiful young women. 

 

Regarding this last passage, with its information that the king had women test Bṛhannaḍā’s lack of masculinity, the commentators seem to have unanimously decided “not to go there.” This would suggest that, at least for these authors there is a physical or responsive element involved. Nonetheless, and regardless of the uncertain readings of almost of the passages referred to above with much of it omitted by the southern manuscripts, the question remains as to what exactly is the gendered situation of Arjuna as he enters and lives in Virāṭa’s antaḥpuram? The situation is complicated by the widely known episode of Urvaśī’s curse of Arjuna to be unsexed or robbed of his manly virility and its partial remission, limiting it to a year (exactly the duration of the Pāṇḍavas’ and Draupadī’s concealment in Virāṭa’s court).  But that whole passage is relegated to an appendix to the CE’s Āraṇyakaparvan (App.1.6. lines 130–152=Citraśālā Press ed. (1930 ) Vanaparvan 3.46–59).

 

Arjuna is cursed by the infuriated apsaras to become a non-male (apumān) dancer (nartana) who will move about in the midst of women as a eunuch (strīmadhye. . . ṣaṇḍavad vicariyasi). Now, by the invariable logic of the curse in Indic literature, this transformation is real and inevitable. Curses can, however, be amended or time-limited either by their authors or some other powerful beings. In this case it is Indra, Arjuna’s father who limits the effect of Urvaśī’s curse to the thirteenth year of exile during which his son will live as a non-male (apuṃstvena) dancer (nartana). At the end of that year, he will regain his masculinity (puṃstvam avāpsyasi).

 

So, by the logic of all of this Arjuna, unlike his brothers and their collective wife, is not merely pretending to be something other than he is. He takes on his position as a non-male dance and music instructor in Virāṭa’santaḥpuram because that is what he actually is. And thus he is able to pass whatever examination or test he would be subject to in order to be admitted to the womens’ quarters. 

 

Another  helpful reference  in this whole context is Zwilling, Leonard and Michael J. Sweet (2000), ‘The Evolution of Third-Sex Constructs in Ancient India: A Study in Ambiguity’, in Julia Leslie and Mary McGee, eds., Invented Identities: The Interplay of Gender, Religion and Politics in India, 99–132, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

            

 

 

Dr. R.P. Goldman
William and Catherine Magistretti Professor of Sanskrit Emeritus
and
Professor in the Graduate School
Department of South and Southeast Asian Studies
The University of California at Berkeley 

 


On Oct 28, 2025, at 5:50 AM, Madhav Deshpande via INDOLOGY <indology@list.indology.info> wrote:

In the Nalopākhyāna of the Mahābhārata, Damayanti's quarters are described as:

daṇḍibhiḥ sthavirair vr̥tam.

I assume that the word sthavira refers to elderly guards who are unlikely to involve themselves in sextual affairs, and therefore could be trusted to guard women's quarters.

Madhav M. Deshpande
Professor Emeritus, Sanskrit and Linguistics
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
Senior Fellow, Oxford Center for Hindu Studies
Adjunct Professor, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India

[Residence: Campbell, California, USA]


On Tue, Oct 28, 2025 at 4:08 AM Christophe Vielle via INDOLOGY <indology@list.indology.info> wrote:
On the topic of the "third nature", there is also the article by George T. Artola, "The Transvestite in Sanskrit Story and Drama", Annals of Oriental Research (Madras, ed. K. Kunjunni Raja) 25, 1975, pp. 57-68, reed. in Id. The banner of Kāmadeva and other topics of Sanskrit literature and Indian culture (Monographs of the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, University of Toronto, vol. 3), Bombay : Popular Prakashan, 1977, pp. 44-59.

Bw
Christophe

Le 28 oct. 2025 à 09:01, Martin Straube via INDOLOGY <indology@list.indology.info> a écrit :

A good overview over the Buddhist treatment of the topic "eunuch" is J.I. Cabezón's book Sexuality in Classical South Asian Buddhism (Somerville MA, 2017), esp. pp. 339 foll.

Best Martin Straube

Zitat von Roland Steiner via INDOLOGY <indology@list.indology.info>:

See also Renate Syed's selected bibliography on the topic of “India's Third Gender”:

https://eur03.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.renate-syed.de%2Fartikel%2Frenate-syed-hijras-india-s-third-gender-and-2500-years-of-discrimination-and-exclusion&data=05%7C02%7Cchristophe.vielle%40uclouvain.be%7Ccefd7704c7c448ac4d0d08de15f8366b%7C7ab090d4fa2e4ecfbc7c4127b4d582ec%7C1%7C0%7C638972353053972920%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJFbXB0eU1hcGkiOnRydWUsIlYiOiIwLjAuMDAwMCIsIlAiOiJXaW4zMiIsIkFOIjoiTWFpbCIsIldUIjoyfQ%3D%3D%7C0%7C%7C%7C&sdata=viXQuP3A6I5urJHUiJmsWN9FZBnzXYY%2B1Rt%2B4jpuFUw%3D&reserved=0

With best regards,
Roland Steiner

Am 27.10.2025 um 16:33 schrieb Walter Slaje via INDOLOGY:
Just a brief comment: The translation of 'varṣadhara' as an umbrella term for 'eunuch' clearly originates with Indian lexicographers, who equate it with 'klīvo' = 'varṣadharaḥ' = 'ṣaṇḍhaḥ' (e.g. Halāyudha [ed. Aufrecht] 2.275a). However, in modern target languages of translation from Sanskrit, 'eunuch' is generally not defined in any detail.

Kṣīrasvāmin defines varṣadhara as 'unable to procreate' (prajanāsāmarthya, 10.164 [ed. Liebich]). There are a number of causes that can lead to this. It is not necessarily always associated with impotence. Perhaps, however, terms such as klība, vādhri, ṣaṇḍ(h)a, paṇḍaka, etc., were actually indeed associated with various forms of male infertility. For the Buddhist characterisation of ṣaṇḍas and paṇḍakas, Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośabhāṣya provides insight (cf. 4.43 and 4.55).

Either way, Atharvaveda (Ś) 6.138.1–3 ≈≈ (P) 1.68.1–5 [ed. Kim] is remarkable because it explains how to make a man incapable of reproducing, by smashing his testicles with two stones (Ś 6.138.2cd/P 1.68.3cd). This renders him a klība or vadhri (Ś 6.138.2cd/P 1.68.3cd), a 'juiceless' (a-rasa) individual (Ś 6.138.3c/P1.68.4c). This 'juicelessness' is conceptually similar to varṣa-dhara, as it merely signifies an inability to ejaculate fertile semen without necessarily implying a restriction in erectile function.

An interesting description of eunuch activity in Aurangzeb's harem that seems to fit precisely with this image of infertile yet potent 'eunuchs' is provided by F. Bernier in 'Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668' (ed. E. Constable). Westminster 1891, pp. 131–133). The fact that this was an Indo-Islamic harem is no counterargument in this context, as the Indian harem system dates back to pre-Christian times and was firmly anchored in the cultural history of the Indian nobility. The production of offspring that did not come from the ruler himself had to be prevented at all costs.


Kind regards, WS



Am Mo., 27. Okt. 2025 um 10:26 Uhr schrieb Shirley, Dr. Bruno Marshall via INDOLOGY <indology@list.indology.info>:

  Dear Heiner,


  I am skeptical about all translations of "eunuch." The term itself
  comes from the Byzantine court, in which men were intentionally
  castrated to serve as guards for the women's quarters; because of
  the clear parallel to Chinese 宦官, the term has been applied to
  them, fairly accurately. But Shaun Tougher, who has very literally
  written the book on Byzantine eunuchs, cautions us about
  over-application to other contexts, which can very often conflate
  different kinds of (or understandings of) sexual and gender
  difference. As Shane Gannon shows, in his excellent "Exclusion as
  Language and the Language of Exclusion," colonial-period
  translators in India applied the label "eunuch" to a rather wide
  range of terms both contemporary and historical, very few of which
  ever indicated "men intentionally castrated to guard the women's
  quarters." Gannon's examples do not specifically include
  /varṣadhara/, but I think he does convincingly show that these
  terms did not indicate a single social/gendered/sexual identity,
  and that to conflate them risks distortion.


  We could read /varṣadhara/ as "one who holds or retains semen,"
  implying impotence (congenital or manufactured). Apte's
  dictionary, which Dr. Paturi has helpfully copied below for
  context, gives us only the /Arthaśāstra /as a witness for
  /varṣadhara /as "eunuch." Working very quickly off of the GRETIL
  version, we have:


      1.20.21: "Octogenarian men or quinquagenarian women, who look
      like mothers and fathers, and *senior /varṣadhara /retainers*
      (/abhyāgārika/s), should find out [who] in the inner chamber
      is pure/upright or impure/dishonest (/śauca///aśauca/), and
      should make them firm in loyalty to the master" (/aśītikāḥ
      puruṣāḥ pañcāśatkāḥ striyo vā mātā.pitṛ.vyañjanāḥ
      sthavira.varṣadhara.abhyāgārikāś ca^avarodhānāṃ śauca.āśaucaṃ
      vidyuḥ, sthāpayeyuś ca svāmi.hite/).

      1.21.1: "Rising after sleeping, [the king] should be
      surrounded by groups of female archers; in the second
      courtyard, by armoured and beturbaned */varṣadhara
      /retainers*..." (/śayanād utthitaḥ strī.gaṇair dhanvibhiḥ
      parigṛhyate, dvitīyasyāṃ kakṣyāyāṃ kañcuka.uṣṇīṣibhir
      varṣa.dhara.abhyāgārikaiḥ, tṛtīyasyāṃ kubja.vāmana.kirātaiḥ,
      caturthyāṃ mantribhiḥ sambandhibhir dauvārikaiś ca
      prāsa.pāṇibhiḥ/).


  So the /varṣadhara /is very clearly involved someone involved in
  the women's quarters, and even with the king's personal
  protection. But I can't see an explicit suggestion here that they
  were intentionally castrated for this task. That they were trusted
  with the king's protection alongside female archers suggests a
  commonality there; neither women nor /varṣadhara/s could claim the
  throne, and so would be less likely to assassinate for personal
  gain? That they were trusted alongside very old men suggests that
  neither group were considered a sexual threat, and so perhaps the
  /varṣadhara /was "made" to be as impotent. Against this, Sweet and
  Zwilling assert that castration "was regarded with disapproval and
  at times legally forbidden in Indian tradition prior to Muslim
  rule," but offer us no citations or further references.


  There are likely other references elsewhere, with more helpful
  explanations of both the term and the identity. But in their
  absence I am not confident that we could identify a clear visual
  representation of a /varṣadhara /specifically, without conflating
  them with the other terms often translated "eunuch" (i.e.
  /paṇḍaka/s, /klība/s...). There are some descriptions of these
  latter terms in e.g. medical texts, I believe, but I am not
  familiar with references to them as guardians of royal women's
  quarters (I would be delighted to be corrected, out of my own
  interests!), and they are more often presented as congenital (and
  unfortunate) conditions.


  On a personal note, I would be very interested in learning more
  about the early relief you are studying.


  With best wishes,

  Bruno

  ------------------------------------------------------------------------
  *From:* INDOLOGY <indology-bounces@list.indology.info> on behalf
  of Nagaraj Paturi via INDOLOGY <indology@list.indology.info>
  *Sent:* 26 October 2025 12:54:05
  *To:* Rolf Heinrich Koch
  *Cc:* indology
  *Subject:* Re: [INDOLOGY] varṣadhara - eunuch
  https://eur03.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fapp%2Fapte_query.py%3Fpage%3D1398&data=05%7C02%7Cchristophe.vielle%40uclouvain.be%7Ccefd7704c7c448ac4d0d08de15f8366b%7C7ab090d4fa2e4ecfbc7c4127b4d582ec%7C1%7C0%7C638972353054024191%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJFbXB0eU1hcGkiOnRydWUsIlYiOiIwLjAuMDAwMCIsIlAiOiJXaW4zMiIsIkFOIjoiTWFpbCIsIldUIjoyfQ%3D%3D%7C0%7C%7C%7C&sdata=3iE5nr4uZyNUQRIEXl%2FjhR0o0UG%2FZqJcqXTX%2BK1G5QM%3D&reserved=0

  वर्षः varṣam, वर्षम् varṣam [वृष् भावे घञ् कर्तरि अच् वा]
  1 Raining, rain, a shower of rain; तपाम्यहमहं वर्षं
  निगृह्णाभ्युत्सृजामि च Bg.9.19; विद्युत्स्तनितवर्षेषु Ms.4.103;
  Me.37. -2 Sprinkling, effusion, throwing down, a shower of
  anything; सुरभि सुरविमुक्तं पुष्पवर्षं पपात R.12.102; so शरवर्षः,
  शिलावर्षः, लाजवर्षः &c. -3 Seminal effusion. -4 A year (usually
  only /n./); इयन्ति वर्षाणि तया सहोग्रमभ्यस्यतीव
  व्रतमासिधारम् R.13.67; न ववर्ष वर्षाणि द्वादश दशशताक्षः Dk.;
  वर्षभोग्येण शापेन Me.1. -5 A division of the world, a continent;
  (nine such divisions are usually enumerated:-- 1 कुरु; 2 हिरण्मय;
  3 रम्यक; 4 इलावृत; 5 हरि; 6 केतुमाला; 7 भद्राश्व; 8 किंनर; and 9
  भारत); यस्मिन् नव वर्षाणि Bhāg.5.16.6. एतदूढगुरुभारभारतं वर्षमद्य
  मम वर्तते वशे Śi.14.5. -6 India (= भारतवर्ष). -7 A cloud (only
  /m./ according to Hemachandra). -8 A day; अप्राप्तयौवनं बालं
  पञ्चवर्षसहस्रकम् Rām.7.73.5. (com. वर्षशब्दोऽत्र दिनपरः). -9 A
  place of residence; वर्षमस्य गिरेर्मध्ये रामेण श्रीमता कृतम् Mb.3.
  130.12. -Comp. -अंशः, -अंशकः, -अङ्गः a month.
  -अम्बु/n./ rain-water. -अयुतम् ten thousand years.
  -अर्चिस्/m./ the planet Mars. -अवसानम् the autumn or Śarat season.
  -आघोषः a frog. -आमदः a peacock. -उपलः 1 hail stone -2 a kind of
  sweetmeat ball; घनैरमीषां परिवेषकैर्जनैरवर्षि
  वर्षोपलगोलकावली N.16.100. -करः a cloud. (-री) a cricket. -कालः the
  rainy season. -केतुः a red-flowering Punar-navā. -कोशः, -षः 1 a
  month. -2 an astrologer. -गणः (pl.) a long series of years; बहून्
  वर्षगणान् घोरान् Ms.12.54. -गिरिः, -पर्वतः 'a Varṣa mountain', /i.
  e./ one of the mountain-ranges supposed to separate the different
  divisions of the world from one another; (they are seven:--
  हिमवान् हेमकूटश्च निषधो मेरुरेव च । चैत्रः कर्णी च शृङ्गी च
  सप्तैते वर्षपर्वताः). -घ्न/a./ protecting from rain.
  -ज/a./ (वर्षेज also) 1 produced in the rainy season. -2 one year
  old. -त्रम् an umbrella; छायां ते दिनकरभाः प्रबाधमानं वर्षत्रं भरत
  करोतु मूर्ध्नि शीताम् Rām.2.107.18. -धरः 1 a cloud. -2 a eunuch,
  an attendant on the women's apartments; (वर्षधर्ष in the same
  sense). See वर्षवर. -3 the ruler of a Varṣa;
  वर्षधराभिवादिताभिवन्दितचरणः Bhāg.5.3.16; also वर्षप-पति.-4 a
  mountain bounding a Varṣa. -पदम् a calender. -पाकिन्/m./ the
  hog-plum. -पूगः a series or collection of years. -प्रतिबन्धः a
  drought. -प्रवेगः a heavy shower of rain; वर्षप्रवेगा विपुलाः
  पतन्ति Rām.4.28.45. -प्रियः the Chātaka bird. -रात्रः the rainy
  season; वर्षरात्रे स्थितो रामः Rām.4.30.1.-वरः a eunuch, an
  attendant on the women's apartments; वर्षवराभ्यागारिकैः Kau.
  A.1.21; ये स्वल्पसत्त्वाः प्रथममात्मीयाः स्त्रीस्वभाविनः । जात्या
  न दुष्टाः कार्येषु ते वै वर्षवराः स्मृताः ॥ Ak.; M.4.4/5;
  Rām.2.65.7; Mb.9.62.5. -वृद्धिः/f./ birth-day. -शतम् a century,
  one hundred years. -सहस्रम् a thousand years.

  On Sun, Oct 26, 2025 at 4:14 PM Rolf Heinrich Koch via INDOLOGY
  <indology@list.indology.info> wrote:

      Dear listmembers,

      in the context of the female apartments antaḥpura we come
      across the word varṣadhara.

      1. Where the meaning "eunuch" is evident?

      2. For the interpretation of an early relief I look for any
      details of the eunuch's appearance.

      Anyone can help?

      Heiner

      -- Dr. R. H. Koch - Germany/Sri Lanka
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--
Martin Straube
Research Fellow in Pali Lexicography
The Pali Text Society
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–––––––––––––––––––
Christophe Vielle
Louvain-la-Neuve










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