Manuscript photography in India
Frank Conlon
conlon at u.washington.edu
Sun Jan 28 16:12:03 UTC 1996
To Indology list colleagues:
Since I had pulled together the thread for Beatrice Reusch, it occurred
that the information contained therein might be of utility to others who
were not members of H-ASIA back in May, 1995.
Frank Conlon
Co-editor of H-ASIA
-----------------------------------------
>From conlon at u.washington.edu Sun Jan 28 08:09:28 1996
Date: Sun, 28 Jan 1996 08:08:42 -0800 (PST)
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
To: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA THREAD: Photographing documents
The following posts appeared on the H-ASIA networks during May 1995:
Date: Thu, 4 May 1995 16:14:14 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Query on photographic copies of manuscripts
H-ASIA
May 4, 1995
Query on photographic copies of manuscripts
***********************************************************************
From: Irene Joshi <joshi at u.washington.edu>
I wonder if anyone on H-ASIA could provide a useful answer to the
accompanying query recently received.
---------- Forwarded message ----------
Date: Mon, 24 Apr 1995 08:38:36 -0500
From: ali00law at UNCCVM.UNCC.EDU
To: Multiple recipients of list IMAGELIB <IMAGELIB at LISTSERV.ARIZONA.EDU>
Subject: Photographing? text
A professor here is traveling to India this summer and needs to "record"
some images of ancient Sanskrit text to bring back to the University to
translate. He needs to be able to enlarge this images to a readable size,
yet maintain a "clearness" of image so that the characters are discernable.
Preferably, he would transfer the images to a computer format so that he
could translate them on screen.
Does anyone have any experience with this type of project? We need to
suggest necessary equipment, so that he can determine how it will fit into
his grant money. Best case scenario, is it possible to purchase some type
of lens for a standard 35mm camera to shoot clear images of the text and
make either prints or slides, or PhotoCD that are readable? (We were
thinking low budget here)
Any suggestions would be appreciated.
Lisa
~ Lisa Weedman ali00law at email.uncc.edu
~ Media Services/Graphics
~ The University of North Carolina at Charlotte
=====================================================================
Date: Thu, 4 May 1995 17:32:50 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Query on photographic copies of manuscripts
H-ASIA
May 4, 1995
Response to query on photographic copies of manuscripts
**********************************************************************
From: Lance Brennan <HYLB at sigma.sss.flinders.edu.au>
With reference to the query just posted on research photography of
manuscripts and documents:
My experience of taking microfilm of manuscripts and newspapers in
India suggests that an ordinary 35mm SLR camera with its usual lens
is the most appropriate instrument. The film should be normal black
and white. It is important to have a cable release to prevent
movement of the camera, and most important is to have a tripod or
some other stand to hold the camera steady. I have generally
ended up tying my tripod to a chair, but there were splendid
tripods with an adjustable overhanging fixture in London in 1992.
Where the material is indoors you need artificial light - a couple of
desk lamps purchased in India with 100 watt globes is more than
ample. Outside, the light should be reasonable through most Indian
seasons.
In terms of technique, the crucial elements are 1. Getting the light
even over the page or object, and checking this with the light meter
of the camera at each shot (especially outside). This is what makes
the process rather slow. 2. Keeping the camera steady. 3. Keeping a
record on the film where possible - and in a diary.
If the light is poor you can use slower film (I have used microfilm
specially cut up for the camera cassettes) but more recent experience
suggests that normal film will give satisfactory images if the camera
is rock steady, and will not be as sensitive to shifts/ variations in
light.
The camera I used in Mauritius in 1992 to film hand written shipping
registers was a Pentax KF1000: hardly a sophisticated instrument.
I was able to buy extra black and white film in Mauritius, and have
it developed there.
If you need any more information about the speed of the film - which
I cannot remember off hand - please let me know.
Lance Brennan
Flinders University of South Australia
HYLB at sigma.sss.flinders.edu.au
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>From conlon at u.washington.edu Sun Jan 28 07:59:26 1996
=================================================================
Date: Fri, 5 May 1995 10:58:37 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA Re Query on photographic copies of manuscripts (6)
H-ASIA
May 5, 1995
Responses to query on photographic copies of manuscripts (6)
*****************************************************************
1.)
From: Frederick M Asher <asher at maroon.tc.umn.EDU>
Sure, art historians do this sort of thing all the time. A 35mm
camera with a macro lens allows focusing down close enough to get
the mss. pages clearly in focus. To stabilize the camera, it's
best to use a tripod; if the person simply takes the stem of the
tripod--that is, the central shaft--all the way out and puts in
back in upside down so that it projects downward between the legs
of the tripod, the camera can be attached so that slides can be
made. The slides then can be projected, printed or digitized.
One additional piece of advice: Practice before getting the the
library/archives where the mss. are! Use similar low-light
conditions. Good luck.
Rick Asher
University of Minnesota
*****************************************************************
2.)
From: SILK at AC.GRIN.EDU (Jonathan Silk)
Although this is not a positive suggestion, it might be worth
mentioning:
Whatever else you do, DO NOT use an auto-focus camera. Some
photos of manuscripts which an acquaintance took in Nepal were
unsuitable for reproduction for that reason. Autofocus cameras
*approximate* the focal length, which may be OK for scenery, but
is disaster when you want to be able to read something.
Jonathan Silk
Grinnell College
SILK at AC.GRIN.EDU
*****************************************************************
3.)
From: dgjohnsn at violet.berkeley.edu
I have made copies of Chinese manuscripts using standard
Fujicolor 400 color negative film for prints with a Canon EOS
camera with a 35mm-75mm zoom lens, with very good results. But:
the shots were taken outside, in a sunny courtyard, hence high f-
stop and better resolution; and the prints were 5x7, which can be
expensive. Test the lens first to see if you can get
approximately an entire ms. leaf in your viewfinder, in focus.
If you can't get that close to the ms., you may have an
additional problem.
David Johnson
History
UC Berkeley
*****************************************************************
4.)
From: lochtefeldjames%faculty%Carthage at cns.carthage.EDU
In regard to photographing manuscripts:
I have nothing to add to the technical comments Lance Brennan
made (my experience photographing manuscripts was much more
rudimentary--I held the camera over the manuscript, tried not to
move, and clicked the shutter). I used ordinary color print
film, and the images turned out fine.
One caution that I would add is that whenever possible the film
should be developed before one leaves, to make sure that a page
or pages hasn't been skipped by mistake. This can save a great
deal of expense and aggravation (as it did for me, when I was
able to go back and shoot the missing folio).
James G. Lochtefeld
Carthage College
*****************************************************************
5.)
From: "T.T.Nguyen - Economics" <nguyen2 at watserv1.uwaterloo.CA>
If the ultimate intention is to "transfer the images to a
computer format" then to use Logitech FOTOMAN: a special black
and white hand-held camera which can take photographs directly in
electronic format (e.g., PCX or GIF). No film is needed. The
camera can take up to 12 pictures. After that, you download the
pictures into a lapto or desktop computer and then continue the
process. If you don't like the pictures, just retake them
instantaneously. Cost about US$400-500.
If you take pictures on regular films, eventually you will have
to scan them into the computer. This might be an expensive
proposition both timewise and moneywise if you are talking about
hundreds of pictures (assuming that you already own a scanner).
T. T. Nguyen
University of Waterloo
*****************************************************************
6.)
From: nsivin at sas.upenn.EDU (Nathan Sivin)
What you want for photographing documents for reproduction is a
macro lens, available for most high-quality single-lens reflexes,
and above all else a portable copy stand, preferably folding for
travel, that will hold the camera rock steady and parallel to the
copy. You also need weights, like the ones used for Chinese
calligraphy, that can be set in the margins of the document to
hold it flat, and a cable release.
For someone working on a restricted grant, it is better to buy a
15-year-old second-hand Nikon, with no automatic features at all,
than the latest model of a cheap camera with mediocre optics.
Old issues of _Modern Photography_ rate optics, but it is
essential to examine the lens carefully for scratches or worn
coating, which show misuse, and to get a week's tryout. The week
can then be used for intensive trials of everything the camera
will be used for. Having a built-in exposure meter is a waste of
money, but it can be used if you can't afford a good incident-
light meter like the Gossen. It won't give accurate readings,
because the copy is too light, but experimentation will show how
to compensate--again to be worked out during the trial period
until you get perfect exposures to examine with a high-power
magnifier for resolution.
When buying a copy stand, put the camera on it, look through the
viewer at the copy, and bump the camera. If you see the image
moving for more than half of a second, it's not steady enough.
To keep copy and camera parallel, an old trick I use is to carry
a pocket mirror, lay it on the copy, and move the camera on the
stand until the image of the lens in the mirror is centered in
the viewer. The two are then parallel.
--
Nathan Sivin
History and Sociology of Science
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia PA 19104-3325
=================================================================
Date: Fri, 5 May 1995 17:24:04 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Query on photographic copies of manuscripts (2)
H-ASIA
May 5, 1995
Further responses to query on photographic copies of manuscripts (2)
***********************************************************************
From: D Price <dcprice at ucdavis.EDU>
Re: The query about photographing mss.
If you have a reasonably clear ms., good resolution b/w film, good
light, and a close-up lens, you can do just fine with a 35 mm. camera. I
used a low-end Nikon with built-in flash and limited zoom capability that
got me to within about 18 in. of the target, and even with color film I
got pretty legible results from a Chinese woodblock print book. The b/w
negatives can be cut and mounted as slides easily. The main limitation is
thye ability to focus up close, so you should test your equipment and get
a good closeup lens if necessary to insure clarity. As for conversions to
computer format, someone else will have to help you with that.
Don Price
University of California at Davis
*************************************************************************
2.)
From: "Jeffrey G. Barlow" <barlowj at pacificu.EDU>
Another tip on photographing manuscripts. When working with _very_ faded
manuscripts (even illegible ones) use a dark red or orange filter to
enhance contrast and shoot on a high-speed black and white film. When
you develop it, push it to further enhance contrast. Have it printed on
hard papers; if there was any detail there at all, you should have been
able to bring it up nicely.
Jeffrey G. Barlow Professor of History
Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon USA 97116
e-mail: barlowj at pacificu.edu
=================================================================
Date: Sat, 6 May 1995 06:58:16 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Query on photographic copies of manuscripts
H-ASIA
May 6, 1995
Further comment on query re: photographic copies of manuscripts
**********************************************************************
From: Mel Thatcher <gsu at HK.Super.NET>
The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) in Delhi has the
largest manuscript microfilming project in India. The project is
focused on documents in the fields of fine arts and literature. Filming
is taking place in major manuscripts collections throughout India.
Production work is done mainly through microfilm service bureaus which
are required to meet internationally accepted quality standards.
Scholars requiring copies of manuscripts in these fields should contact
IGNCA to determine whether the records required have already been
filmed. The contact person is Dr. T.A.V. Murthy, Librarian, IGNCA,
Janpath, Delhi, India.
My organization (the Genealogical Society of Utah) is microfilming
manuscripts of Hindu pilgrimage records kept by pandits at various sites
in North India and genealogies of Maithili Brahmins in the vicinity of
Madhubani, Bihar. The filming is done by a microfilm service bureau, but
processing is done in the USA.
Using a common SLR camera to film manuscripts, as suggested by Lance
Brennan, is certainly an option that is available to scholars. Black and
white films is best because of its low ASA rating, which I think is
around ASA 25. If color is required, ASA 64 is preferrable to higher
speed films because the image is less grainy and thus sharper when
enlarged. I think, however, that this option is viable only if the
quantity of records is small and high photographic quality is not an issue.
Microfilm is best for photographing manuscripts because it is
manufactured specifically for this purpose. It is high contrast,
panchromatic, slow speed film (too slow to be given an ASA rating
according to some experts); so it is able to capture in the highest
resolution any marks on a page which are visible to the eye. However,
selecting the proper exposure setting for the background color of the
document is critical to producing the best image. Thus, one has to do
exposure step tests for document colors to determine the best exposure
setting before embarking on production filming. The processing of step
tests and production film must be identical in order to obtain the
desired results--herein lies the problem in India.
I have visited many microfilming labs in Delhi, Bombay, and Madras. Most
of them do not have the proper kind of microfilm processors and/or do not
practice process control to insure that the processing of each roll of
film is the same. There are a few bureaus, however, which are capable of
producing acceptable results or which can be brought up to speed with
some training and consultation.
I suggest that scholars needing microfilm service in India contact IGNCA
for a shortlist of bureaus which it uses. If you engage a bureau be
specific about and insistent on meeting quality standards. You should
agree to pay for acceptable quality exposures only.
Some microfilm service bureaus are now moving into electronic imaging; so
scanning is another possible option if the manuscripts can be brought to
the place where the scanner is located.
Mel Thatcher
Genealogical Society of Utah
Hong Kong
gsu at hk.super.net
=================================================================
Date: Mon, 8 May 1995 10:52:28 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Query on photographic copies of manuscripts (5)
H-ASIA
May 8, 1995
Further comments on query re: photographic copies of manuscripts (5)
**********************************************************************
1.)
From: nsivin at sas.upenn.EDU (Nathan Sivin)
I would like to add a warning about tripods. With few exceptions,
really steady ones are bulky and heavy. If you don't believe me, try
the bump test mentioned in my last message. There are small, light
alternatives. If you can afford good equipment to last a lifetime,
you might be interested in what I use, a remarkable three-legged copy
stand made for Bolex movie cameras, with a tiny Leitz panhead, the
ensemble weighing about 4 oz., taking up about the same volume as a
camera, easy to set up parallel to copy lying on a table, and rock
steady at any distance from an inch to 18 inches. It would probably
cost about $150 today, which is the minimum for which you could get a
tripod that any pro would take seriously. For a tenth of that you can
buy a tiny ball-mounted head on a clamp that can be attached to a
chair or jury-rigged in some other way. If the support is steady, the
ensemble will be steady. Keep in mind that in most libraries, using
ambient lighting (sunlight through a window is seldom uniform), you
will often need no movement whatever for something like 1/2 second.
What looks like a clear image when enlarged to 5x7 will often be
unusable for reproduction. A realistic test is to blow the image up
to twice the size of a full page and see if it is crystal clear at the
edges, or use a low-powered microscope at similar magnification. Such
photography is enormous labor. There is no sense in doing it for
unusable or barely usable results. This is particularly true for worn
or faded manuscripts, where it is important to be able to see exactly
how legible each character is, and for which you may need to reproduce
enlarged details.
--
Nathan Sivin
History and Sociology of Science
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia PA 19104-3325
*********************************************************************
2.)
From: Veena Talwar Oldenburg <pko1 at columbia.EDU>
All I would add to the very detailed instructions to photographing
manuscripts in low light conditions in libraries is to use the fastest
speed, high contrast fil in black and white. I had superrb results and
was able to print out the film in a microform reader for ten cents a
page. For illustrations color film works but not as well as black and
white.
Veena Oldenburg
**********************************************************************
3.)
From: Robin Kornman <rkornman at pucc.Princeton.EDU>
I hope somebody else has a better answer to this question. But I had the
same question about the photographing of Tibetan block prints. A man who
did a great deal of that kind of collecting of data told me that the thing
that worked best for him was the simplest. He got a wooden board and nailed
holes in it to put the folio pageson the board. THen went onto the roof of a
building and used a simple 35mm camera with a tripod and a remote pushbutton
on one of those metal cords. He said that the most important thing was not
to have the right lens, but to make sure that the plan of the film in the
camera is parallel with the plane in which the text lies. And so he set the
text on a home-made stand so that it was slanted up and slanted the tripod
at the same angle down.
He used this technique to copy numerous texts onto high-resolution, "slow"
35mm film.
I would love to hear of more sophisticated answers, because I have to do
this kind of thing myself at times.
Robin Kornman
*********************************************************************
4.)
From: MOESHART at rullet.LeidenUniv.NL
I have photographed lots of documents in archives and the best equipment
for doing so has proved to be a 35mm single lens reflex camera with a
35 mm f2 lens. This enables me to do most of the photography sitting
down with the document propped up against a piece of wood.
For film I usually use Fuji Neopan 100 ASA (ISO) black and white negative\
film. This enables enlargements which are very good readable, or the negatives
can be read in a microfilm reader. If your professor is not used to taking
photographs this way, he should parctise before leaving! That will avoid
mistakes later.
Yours sincerely,
Herman J. Moeshart
Leiden University
**********************************************************************
5.)
From: SILK at AC.GRIN.EDU (Jonathan Silk)
1) There seems to be some disagreement concerning film. My (very
limited!) experience (almost all with Skt. MSS) is that color film often
allows one to read what is otherwise illegible with b/w, for the following
reason: if the color of the paper has changed, or there are shadows, or
other damage etc., you can still differentiate the writing from the paper /
shadow etc., which would perhaps not be possible with b/w. Alot of this
will depend on the condition of the originals you want to shoot. (It also
tells you whether, as is sometimes the case, more than one color of ink was
used.)
2) I would recommend that you carefully try using a direct-to-disc
method before relying on it. It seems to me more than likely that the
resolution is not sufficient for the task. It is also likely that the
quality of the lens is relatively poor (relative to a good Nikon lens, for
example). Again, much of this will depend on what you want to photograph,
and what you want to do with the photos. If you are taking photos of
something worthwhile, however (and if not, why do it?), you will want to
insure the highest possible resolution, even if you do not plan to take
advantage of that resolution right away. Taking photographs, and then
scanning them on a flatbed scanner, or better yet having them scanned on a
drum scanner, will give you very high resolution, let you keep the film for
future use, and still allow computer input.
Jonathan Silk
Grinnell College
SILK at AC.GRIN.EDU
=================================================================
Date: Wed, 10 May 1995 10:21:48 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Query on photographic copies of manuscripts
H-ASIA
May 10, 1995
A final comment on the query on photographic copies of manuscripts
**********************************************************************
From: standen <standen at fyfield.sjc.ox.ac.UK>
A small technical addition, particularly if using slow shutter speeds. To
avoid camera shake from the raising of the mirror on a single-lens reflex
camera, use the self-portrait feature. With this set (at least on a Nikon),
the mirror rises when you press the shutter release button, but the shutter
itself does not release for however many seconds you have set, thus
allowing the camera to settle down from the mirror action first.
Naomi Standen
standen at fyfield.sjc.ox.ac.uk
=================================================================
Date: Thu, 11 May 1995 16:13:47 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Re: photographing documents
H-ASIA
May 11, 1995
Further comment on photography of documents
*********************************************************************
From: Mel Thatcher <gsu at HK.Super.NET>
Here are a few observations on photographic quality by a
colleague who has spent about three decades working in
conventional photography, cinematograhpy, and microphotography.
Film speed and resolution: Film manufacturers obtain faster film
speeds by enlarging the silver halide crystals in the film
emulsion, thus the grain in slower film emulsions is finer than
in faster film emulsions. Consequently, slower films are capable
of higher resolution than faster films. (You can test this by
comparing the readability of slides of documents filmed on 64,
100, 200, and 400 ASA , as I have done.--MT)
Color film: If color film is used for filming documents,
Kodachrome film will produce the sharpest image because a color
dye process is used to bring out the image. The image in
Ektachrome type film is grainy because it uses a silver emulsion
(the grain is much larger than in B&W microfilm). Regardless of
which type of film is used, slower speeds are better for filming
documents.
Digital cameras: While digital cameras produce images which look
fine on a SVGA monitor, the resolution is still not up to the
standard of microfilm. (Our organization is working with
manufacturers of digital cameras on solving this problem.--MT)
Scanning: Depending upon the condition of the original document,
scanning from microfilm may produce a better image than scanning
the original because the microfilm image has already been reduced
to black and white.
Mel Thatcher
Genealogical Society of Utah
gsu at hk.super.net
=================================================================
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Photographing manuscripts
H-ASIA
May 13, 1995
Further comment on manuscript photography and preservation
*********************************************************************
From: Kenneth E Rasmussen <rastus at minerva.cis.yale.EDU>
On the subject of Kodachrome vs. Ektachrome: As anyone who has been
around slide collections knows, the color on Kodachrome slides will last
years longer than that on Ektachrome slides, which fade to red after 10
years or so. (I'm not really sure about Ektachrome's exact longevity, but
it is certainly far less than Kodachrome's.)
I'm a grad student in art history at Yale, specializing in Chinese
painting, 13th to 15th centuries. I'll post a more complete
self-introduction next year, when I find a dissertation topic.
Eric Rasmussen
Yale University
=================================================================
Date: Mon, 22 May 1995 14:15:08 -0700
From: Frank Conlon <conlon at u.washington.edu>
Reply to: H-Net list for Asian History and Culture <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
To: Multiple recipients of list H-ASIA <H-ASIA at msu.edu>
Subject: H-ASIA: Further on photography, manuscripts etc.
H-ASIA
May 22, 1995
Further comment on photographic reproductions of manuscripts etc.
*********************************************************************
From: Gary M Tartakov <tart at iastate.EDU>
I wish to add a note to Kenneth E RasmussenUs post on the comparative
qualities of Kodachrome and Ektachrome in copying documents. The
following comes from the curator of the slide collection at Iowa State
University, and accords with my experience over many years using both.
Rasmussen wrote: "the color on Kodachrome slides will last years longer
than that on Ektachrome slides, which fade to red after 10 years or so.
(I'm not really sure about Ektachrome's exact longevity, but it is
certainly far less than Kodachrome's)."
Our experience is somewhat different. The archival qualities of
Kodachrome are not necessarily "better" than Ektachrome, they are just
different. Indeed Kodachrome is less grainy. Each of course is
somewhat different in colors. Kodachrome will last *longer* than
Ektachrome if it is properly stored in a dark and chemically inert
environment. Ektachrome will last longer than Kodachrome if the slide
is projected often. Projection will fade Kodachrome faster than
Ektachrome.
The point is that for archival purposes and later reproduction the major
difference is which slide makes the sort of reproduction one wants most.
Each may have a different preference in color quality. The issue of
fading is largely one of will the slides be projected during study or
teaching. If one is going to project one needs to use duplicates or
ektachrome, because Kodachrome changes colors as hours of projection
continue.
For my own work I prefer Kodachrome originals because they pick up
greater detail and cover a wider range that Ektachrome. And IUve gotten
used to its RwarmerS colors. I study and reproduce the Kodachrome
slides. If I want to project for a class, I have Ektachrome duplicates
made.
Gary Tartakov
Iowa State University
=================================================================
To post to H-ASIA send your message to H-ASIA at msu.edu
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